Sungusungu Tribal Justice Organizations

Sungusungu emerged among the Sukuma tribe as grass-roots law and order organizations in 1982. Organizations were first formed with the goal of controlling the increasing number of cattle rustlers because of the Ugandan war in 1979 that produced a surplus of guns and young jobless males. Soon the organizations began to punish adulterers, run-away wives, debtors, and witches. Mesaki (1995) discusses how state officials have documented 3,072 witch killings (approximately eighty percent of the victims were elderly women) by the Sukuma from 1970-1988. The Sungusungu revived traditional aggressive behavior towards women and became heavily involved in the killings. Further, thieves, whether they were guilty or innocent, were beaten and sometimes killed after failing to confess their crime immediately. Although often violent, Sungusungu are peacemakers—council members arbitrate disputes involving debts or adultery with fines and sometimes ostracism.

Starting in one or two villages, elders used charismatic leadership to organize villagers into a rank-and-file hierarchy to combat crime and protect cattle. Within a year, the organizations had spread from the Sukuma populations in northwestern Tanzania to distant emigrant Sukuma populations in areas such as Rukwa, where this research was conducted. Bukurura (1994) and Abrahams (1998) discuss how the Sungusungu institution involves independent village chapters whose activities are coordinated by higher-level leadership. Although village Sungusungu organizations have autonomy to choose their own leaders and make decisions, the institution is set up to link all Sungusungu chapters under one cooperating body. Leaders govern at the village, ward, division, district and regional political levels following the Tanzanian modern political system introduced by the British.[1] Each of the political levels has Sungusungu officials including a chief (ntemi), chairman (mwenyekiti) and a secretary (katibu). Sungusungu, as the Sukuma did in pre-colonial times, depend on the ntemi as a religious diviner. The chairman of the meeting holds a customary role similar to Western institutions. He provides order within meetings, and is the most likely person to be contacted by individuals requesting assistance from the Sungusungu. The secretary uses the national Swahili language to write the details of all the cases discussed at meetings, and lists the names of every council member attending court sessions.

Under the leadership positions, a few dozen or more council members (wajumbe) have the duty of hearing cases and discussing Sungusungu matters in secrecy. Each member is expected to attend meetings and participate in court sessions. Further, if the secret committee fails to reach consensus on a difficult case, a public meeting occurs where all Sungusungu members are expected to attend. The Sungusungu soldiers are composed of all young male Sukuma (between the ages of approximately 14 and 30) who are led by a few commanders. Each commander controls the young males in approximately ten nearby households. The commanders and soldiers are expected to obey the orders of the council and apprehend thieves or other offenders immediately upon knowledge of a crime being committed. Further, the soldiers may be asked by the council to travel to distant areas to apprehend suspected offenders or gather witnesses needed to resolve cases.

REFERENCES

Abrahams, R.G., and International African Institute

            1967   The Peoples of Greater Unyamwezi, Tanzania Nyamwezi, Sukuma, Sumbwa, Kimbu, Konongo. London: International    African Institute.

Abrahams, R.G.

            1998   Vigilant Citizens: Vigilantism and the State. Cambridge, UK, Malden, MA, USA: Polity Press; Blackwell.

Bukurura, S.

            1994   Sungusungu: Vigilantes in West-Central Tanzania. Cambridge: Cambridge.

Fleisher, M.L.

            2000   Sungusungu: State-Sponsored Village Vigilante Groups among the Kuria of Tanzania. Africa 70:209-228.

Hangaya, M.

            1989   The State and the Peasantry in Tanzania: Lessons from Sungusungu/Basalama of Shinyanga. University of Dar es Salaam.

Mesaki, S.

            1995   The Preponderance of Women as Victims in Sukuma Witch Killings. In The Tanzanian Peasantry: Further Studies, ed. Peter G. Forster, and Sam Maghimbi. xxxiv, 329. Aldershot, England; Brookfield, USA: Avebury.

Mwaikusa, J.T.